Manuel B. Garcia

Manuel B. Garcia serves as the Senior Director for Educational Technology and Digital Learning at FEU Institute of Technology, Manila, Philippines. Read More

Contact Info

1607, FEU Tech Building,
P. Paredes St, Sampaloc,
Manila, Philippines
mbgarcia@feutech.edu.ph

Follow Me

Part 05 · Protect

Doing Research Without Compromising Ethics

Understand research ethics and integrity, protect participants and research data, address informed consent and conflicts of interest, and meet the ethical responsibilities that apply from study planning through publication.

Why This Stage Matters

Every research decision carries an ethical responsibility.

Scientific value does not excuse research that places participants at unnecessary risk or compromises the integrity of the research record. Ethical responsibilities begin while a study is being planned and continue through recruitment, data collection, analysis, reporting, publication, and the handling of research materials.

Researchers must consider how participants are recruited, what informed consent actually requires, how privacy and confidentiality will be protected, and whether some individuals require additional safeguards. Conflicts of interest, data practices, selective reporting, misconduct, and research fraud also raise responsibilities that extend beyond formal ethics approval.

Ethical research therefore depends on judgment as well as compliance. Rules and institutional procedures provide essential safeguards, but researchers must also consider the consequences of their decisions and ensure that scientific aims are pursued without compromising participants, collaborators, data, or the credibility of the research itself.

Start Here

Start with the first question in this stage.

If you're working through this part from the beginning, this is the first guide in the sequence.

01
First Guide

What Makes Research Ethical in the First Place?

Ethical research requires more than approval, consent, or compliance with rules. It requires researchers to justify what they study, how they study it, whom they involve, and how they protect people throughout the research process.

Start the Guide →
Part 05 · 34 Sections · 398 Guides

Protect participants and the research record

Understand the ethical and integrity issues researchers need to consider before, during, and after a study.

01
what makes research ethical What Makes Research Ethical in the First Place?
→
02
research ethics vs research integrity Research Ethics vs. Research Integrity: What’s the Difference?
→
03
principles of research ethics What Are the Core Principles of Research Ethics, and How Do They Apply in Practice?
→
04
research ethics principles Respect for Persons, Beneficence, Nonmaleficence, and Justice: How Do These Principles Fit Together?
→
05
does good scientific research mean ethical research Does Good Scientific Research Automatically Mean Ethical Research?
→
06
can ethical research be poorly designed Can a Study Be Ethical but Still Be Poorly Designed?
→
07
can methodologically sound research be unethical Can a Study Be Methodologically Sound but Ethically Unacceptable?
→
08
poor research design ethics Why Can Poorly Designed Research Be an Ethical Problem Rather Than Just a Scientific One?
→
09
scientific and social value in research ethics Does Research Have to Produce Social or Scientific Value to Be Ethical?
→
10
unethical research without physical harm Can Research Be Unethical Even When Nobody Is Physically Harmed?
→
11
research ethics vs legal compliance Is Following the Law Enough to Make Research Ethical?
→
12
is ethics approval enough Is Following an Ethics Committee’s Approval Enough to Make Research Ethical?
→
13
legally permitted but ethically questionable research Can Something Be Legally Permitted but Ethically Questionable in Research?
→
14
ethical research institutional rules Can Something Be Ethically Defensible but Prohibited by Institutional Rules?
→
15
research ethics across disciplines Do Different Disciplines Have Different Standards for Ethical Research?
→
16
research ethics across countries Do Ethical Standards Change Depending on the Country or Setting of the Research?
→
17
who is responsible for research ethics Who Is Responsible for Research Ethics: the Researcher, Supervisor, Institution, Sponsor, or Ethics Committee?
→
18
ethics approval researcher responsibility Does Ethics Approval Transfer Ethical Responsibility Away From the Researcher?
→
19
conflicting research ethics principles What Should You Do When Ethical Principles Point Toward Different Decisions?
→
20
no clearly ethical option in research What Should You Do When There Is No Clearly “Ethical” Option?
→
21
when should research not be conducted Can the Most Ethical Research Decision Be Not to Conduct the Study at All?
→

22
do I need ethics approval for my research Do I Need Ethics Approval for My Research? A Practical Guide for Researchers
→
23
ethics committee vs IRB vs REC Ethics Committee vs. IRB vs. REC: Are They the Same Thing?
→
24
what does an IRB review What Is an Institutional Review Board Actually Reviewing When It Reviews Your Study?
→
25
research exempt from ethics review What Types of Research May Be Exempt From Ethics Review?
→
26
exempt vs expedited vs full ethics review Exempt vs. Expedited vs. Full Ethics Review: What’s the Difference?
→
27
who decides if research is exempt from ethics review Who Decides Whether Your Research Is Exempt From Ethics Review?
→
28
can researchers decide they do not need ethics approval Can Researchers Decide for Themselves That Their Study Does Not Need Ethics Approval?
→
29
does research using existing data need ethics approval Does Research Using Existing Data Need Ethics Approval?
→
30
does publicly available data research need ethics approval Does Research Using Publicly Available Data Need Ethics Approval?
→
31
does an anonymous survey need ethics review Does an Anonymous Survey Still Need Ethics Review?
→
32
does non-interventional research need ethics review Does Research With No Physical Intervention Still Need Ethics Review?
→
33
do interviews and focus groups need ethics approval Do Interviews, Focus Groups, and Observational Studies Need Ethics Approval?
→
34
do student research projects need ethics approval Do Student Research Projects Need Ethics Approval?
→
35
classroom research ethics approval publication Does Classroom Research Need Ethics Approval if You Later Decide to Publish It?
→
36
quality improvement audit program evaluation ethics approval Does Quality Improvement, Audit, or Program Evaluation Need Research Ethics Approval?
→
37
when evaluation becomes research What Happens When a Project Starts as Evaluation but Later Becomes Research?
→
38
do pilot studies need ethics approval Do Pilot and Feasibility Studies Need Ethics Approval?
→
39
ethics approval before research funding Does a Study Need Ethics Approval Before Funding Is Awarded?
→
40
can you recruit participants before ethics approval Can You Start Recruiting Participants While Ethics Approval Is Still Pending?
→
41
can you collect data before ethics approval Can You Start Collecting Data While Ethics Approval Is Still Pending?
→
42
accidentally collected data before ethics approval What Happens If You Accidentally Collect Research Data Before Ethics Approval?
→
43
can you get ethics approval retrospectively Can You Get Ethics Approval Retrospectively?
→
44
ethics approval required after data collection What Should You Do if You Discover After Data Collection That Ethics Approval Was Required?
→
45
can data collected without ethics approval be published Can Data Collected Without Required Ethics Approval Ever Be Used or Published?
→

46
research ethics application How Do You Prepare a Research Ethics Application That Clearly Explains What Your Study Will Actually Do?
→
47
ethics committee approval requirements What Information Does an Ethics Committee Usually Need Before It Can Approve a Study?
→
48
methodological detail in ethics application How Much Methodological Detail Belongs in an Ethics Application?
→
49
ethics committee research design Why Does the Ethics Committee Need to Understand Your Research Design?
→
50
research risks ethics application How Should You Explain Risks Without Exaggerating or Minimizing Them?
→
51
research benefits ethics application How Should You Explain the Potential Benefits of a Study Without Promising Too Much?
→
52
research ethics application supporting documents What Supporting Documents Usually Need to Accompany an Ethics Application?
→
53
recruitment materials ethics approval Do Recruitment Materials Need Ethics Approval?
→
54
research instruments ethics approval Do Surveys, Interview Guides, and Other Research Instruments Need Ethics Approval?
→
55
social media recruitment ethics approval Do Social Media Recruitment Posts Need Ethics Approval Before You Publish Them?
→
56
consent form ethics approval Does Every Version of a Participant Information Sheet and Consent Form Need Approval?
→
57
ethics committee methodological changes What Should You Do When the Ethics Committee Requests Changes You Think Are Methodologically Harmful?
→
58
disagree with ethics committee Can You Disagree With an Ethics Committee’s Requested Change?
→
59
appeal ethics committee decision Can You Appeal an Ethics Committee’s Decision?
→
60
ethics review delay What Should You Do When Ethics Review Is Delaying a Time-Sensitive Study?
→
61
respond to ethics committee comments How Should You Respond to Ethics Committee Comments or Conditions?
→
62
conditional ethics approval What Does “Conditional Approval” Mean, and Can You Start the Study Yet?
→
63
start research after ethics approval What Should You Check Before Treating an Ethics Approval Letter as Permission to Begin?
→
64
how long ethics approval lasts How Long Does Ethics Approval Last, and What Happens When It Expires?
→
65
ethics approval expired during study What Happens if Ethics Approval Expires While the Study Is Still Running?
→

66
ethics approval requirements Does Ethics Approval Mean You Can Conduct the Study Exactly as You Want From That Point On?
→
67
ethics amendment When Does a Change to an Approved Study Require an Ethics Amendment?
→
68
minor research changes ethics review Which Research Changes Are Minor Enough Not to Require a New Ethics Review?
→
69
recruitment method ethics amendment Do You Need an Amendment to Change Recruitment Methods?
→
70
sample size ethics amendment Do You Need an Amendment to Change the Sample Size?
→
71
research site ethics amendment Do You Need an Amendment to Add or Remove a Research Site?
→
72
research instrument ethics amendment Do You Need an Amendment to Change a Survey, Interview Guide, or Research Instrument?
→
73
data analysis plan ethics amendment Do You Need an Amendment to Change the Data Analysis Plan?
→
74
protocol deviation vs amendment What Is a Protocol Deviation, and How Is It Different From a Protocol Amendment?
→
75
protocol violation vs deviation What Is a Protocol Violation, and Is It the Same as a Protocol Deviation?
→
76
report protocol deviation ethics committee When Must a Protocol Deviation Be Reported to the Ethics Committee?
→
77
wrong approved document version research What Should You Do When You Realize You Used the Wrong Approved Document Version?
→
78
ineligible participant enrolled research What Should You Do if a Participant Was Enrolled Who Did Not Meet the Approved Eligibility Criteria?
→
79
protocol drift research What Should You Do When the Actual Study Starts Drifting Away From the Approved Protocol?
→
80
ethics committee suspend approval Can an Ethics Committee Suspend or Withdraw Approval After a Study Has Started?
→
81
pause research study ethical reasons When Should Researchers Voluntarily Pause a Study for Ethical Reasons?
→
82
stop or redesign research study ethics When Should You Stop or Redesign a Study Because the Ethical Conditions Under Which It Was Approved No Longer Hold?
→

83
research governance What Is Research Governance, and How Is It Different From Research Ethics?
→
84
ethics approval vs institutional approval Ethics Approval vs. Institutional Approval: What’s the Difference?
→
85
ethics approval not enough to start research Why Can Ethics Approval Alone Be Insufficient to Start a Study?
→
86
site authorization in research What Is Site Authorization or Institutional Permission?
→
87
permission to recruit research participants from an organization Do You Need Permission From an Organization Before Recruiting Its Members?
→
88
research gatekeeper What Is a Research Gatekeeper, and How Much Authority Should a Gatekeeper Have?
→
89
organizational permission vs individual consent Can a School, Hospital, Company, or Community Leader Give Permission on Behalf of Individual Participants?
→
90
research project accountability Who Is Ultimately Accountable for a Research Project?
→
91
principal investigator responsibilities What Is the Role of the Principal Investigator in Research Governance?
→
92
research institution responsibilities What Responsibilities Belong to the Research Institution?
→
93
research sponsor responsibilities What Responsibilities Belong to a Research Sponsor?
→
94
research sponsor vs funder What Is a Research Sponsor, and Is It the Same as a Funder?
→
95
multiple institutions research responsibility Can More Than One Institution Be Responsible for the Same Research Project?
→
96
research outside own institution responsibility Who Is Responsible When Research Is Conducted Outside the Researcher’s Own Institution?
→
97
multisite research approval Do Multisite Studies Need Approval From Every Participating Institution?
→
98
conflicting institutional research requirements What Should You Do When Two Institutions Give You Conflicting Research Requirements?
→
99
conflicting research requirements What Happens When Institutional, Funder, Legal, and Ethics Requirements Conflict?
→
100
final authority in research governance Who Has the Final Say When Several Organizations Share Responsibility for a Study?
→

101
informed consent in research What Does Informed Consent Actually Mean in Research?
→
102
how to write an informed consent form How to Write an Informed Consent Form Participants Can Actually Understand
→
103
information required for informed consent What Information Must Participants Know Before They Can Meaningfully Consent?
→
104
informed consent vs documented consent What Makes Consent Informed Rather Than Merely Documented?
→
105
signed consent form informed consent Does Signing a Consent Form Automatically Mean Consent Was Truly Informed?
→
106
informed consent without signature Can a Participant Give Valid Consent Without Signing Anything?
→
107
written vs verbal vs electronic consent Written vs. Verbal vs. Electronic Consent: When Is Each Appropriate?
→
108
implied consent survey research Can Consent Be Implied by Completing a Survey?
→
109
how much information in consent form How Much Information Is Too Much Information in a Consent Form?
→
110
overly long consent form Can an Overly Long Consent Form Make Consent Less Informed Rather Than More Informed?
→
111
simplify participant information How Simple Should Participant Information Be Without Leaving Out Important Information?
→
112
assess informed consent understanding How Do You Know Whether Participants Actually Understood What They Consented To?
→
113
test participant understanding informed consent Should Researchers Test Participant Understanding Before Accepting Consent?
→
114
partial consent in research Can Participants Consent to Some Parts of a Study but Refuse Others?
→
115
conditional consent research participation Can Participation Be Conditional on Agreeing to Every Part of the Research?
→
116
waiver of informed consent When Can Researchers Waive Informed Consent?
→
117
who can waive informed consent Who Can Authorize a Waiver of Informed Consent?
→
118
research without informed consent Is It Ever Ethical to Include Someone in Research Without Their Knowledge?
→
119
consent to participate vs consent to publish Does Consent to Participate Automatically Include Consent to Publish the Results?
→
120
consent to participate vs data sharing Does Consent to Participate Automatically Include Consent to Share the Data?
→

121
informed consent ongoing process Is Informed Consent a One-Time Event or an Ongoing Process?
→
122
ongoing consent in research What Does Ongoing Consent Mean in Practice?
→
123
reconsent research participants When Should Researchers Ask Participants to Consent Again?
→
124
reconsent participants after study changes Do You Need to Reconsent Participants When the Study Changes?
→
125
when original research consent is no longer adequate How Much Can a Study Change Before the Original Consent Is No Longer Adequate?
→
126
reconsent participants new risks Do Participants Need to Be Reconsented When New Risks Are Discovered?
→
127
reconsent for new uses of research data Do Participants Need to Be Reconsented When New Uses for Their Data Are Proposed?
→
128
participant forgets research consent What Should You Do When a Participant Appears to Have Forgotten What They Agreed To?
→
129
research participant uncomfortable continuing What Should You Do When a Participant No Longer Seems Comfortable Participating but Has Not Explicitly Withdrawn?
→
130
research participant loses capacity to consent Can Researchers Continue Collecting Data From Someone Who Has Lost the Capacity to Consent?
→
131
fluctuating decision-making capacity research What Happens When a Participant’s Decision-Making Capacity Fluctuates During a Long Study?
→
132
change mind after research consent Can Someone Change Their Mind After Giving Consent?
→
133
partial withdrawal from research study Can a Participant Withdraw From Only Part of a Study?
→
134
withdraw permission to use research data Can Participants Withdraw Permission to Use Their Data After They Stop Participating?
→
135
research data after participant withdrawal What Should Happen to a Participant’s Data After Withdrawal?
→
136
withdraw anonymized research data Can Participants Withdraw Data That Have Already Been Anonymized?
→
137
withdraw research data after analysis begins Can Participants Withdraw Their Data After Analysis Has Begun?
→
138
withdraw research data after publication Can Participants Withdraw Their Data After the Research Has Been Published?
→
139
informed consent limited literacy How Do You Obtain Informed Consent When Participants Have Limited Literacy?
→
140
informed consent unable to read Can Someone Give Valid Consent if They Cannot Read the Consent Form?
→
141
informed consent different languages How Do You Obtain Informed Consent Across Different Languages?
→
142
professional translation consent form Does a Consent Form Need Professional Translation?
→
143
informed consent unfamiliar with research Is Translating a Consent Form Enough if the Concept of Research Itself Is Unfamiliar to Participants?
→
144
family member interpreter informed consent Can Family Members Act as Interpreters During Informed Consent?
→
145
professional interpreter informed consent When Should a Professional Interpreter Be Used During Consent?
→
146
translating research concepts What Should You Do When There Is No Direct Translation for an Important Research Concept?
→
147
culture voluntary informed consent How Do Cultural Expectations Affect Whether Consent Is Truly Voluntary?
→
148
community approval informed consent Can Community or Family Approval Be Required in Addition to Individual Consent?
→
149
community approval individual consent Can Community Approval Ever Replace Individual Consent?
→
150
capacity to give informed consent How Do You Decide Whether a Participant Has the Capacity to Give Informed Consent?
→
151
mental health condition informed consent capacity Does Having a Cognitive or Mental Health Condition Automatically Mean Someone Cannot Consent?
→
152
consent on behalf of research participant Can Someone Else Consent on Behalf of a Research Participant?
→
153
legally authorized representative research What Is a Legally Authorized Representative, and When Can One Give Permission for Research?
→
154
participant representative disagreement research What Should Researchers Do When a Participant and Their Representative Disagree About Participation?
→

155
assent vs consent in research Assent vs. Consent: What’s the Difference?
→
156
child assent and parental permission When Do Children or Adolescents Need Both Assent and Parental Permission?
→
157
age of assent in research At What Age Can a Child Meaningfully Assent to Research?
→
158
child assent form Does a Child Have to Sign an Assent Form?
→
159
how to explain research to children How Should Research Be Explained Differently to Children of Different Ages?
→
160
parent refuses research permission What Happens When a Child Wants to Participate but the Parent Says No?
→
161
child refuses research participation What Happens When a Parent Gives Permission but the Child Says No?
→
162
child refusal parental permission research Can a Child’s Refusal Override Parental Permission?
→
163
nonverbal dissent in child research What Should You Do When a Child Does Not Say No but Clearly Appears Unwilling to Participate?
→
164
waiver of parental permission in research When Can Parental Permission Be Waived in Research With Minors?
→
165
parental permission sensitive adolescent research How Should Researchers Handle Sensitive Studies Where Requiring Parental Permission Could Put Adolescents at Risk?
→
166
child turns 18 during research study What Happens When a Child Participant Reaches the Age of Legal Consent During a Longitudinal Study?
→
167
adult consent after childhood research enrollment Do Researchers Need to Obtain Adult Consent From Participants Who Were Originally Enrolled as Children?
→
168
children inclusion in research How Should Researchers Balance Protecting Children With Avoiding Their Unnecessary Exclusion From Research?
→

169
voluntary research participation What Makes Research Participation Truly Voluntary?
→
170
ethical research participant recruitment How Should Researchers Recruit Participants Without Pressuring Them?
→
171
persuasion undue influence coercion research Persuasion vs. Undue Influence vs. Coercion: Where Is the Ethical Boundary?
→
172
persuasive research invitation Can an Invitation to Participate Be Too Persuasive?
→
173
information before research participation How Much Can You Tell Potential Participants Before They Decide Whether to Join?
→
174
recruiting students for research Can Researchers Recruit Their Own Students?
→
175
employees as research participants Can Researchers Recruit Their Own Employees or Subordinates?
→
176
recruiting patients for research Can Clinicians Recruit Their Own Patients for Research?
→
177
clients as research participants Can Researchers Recruit Their Own Clients or Service Users?
→
178
recruit friends family research participants Can Researchers Ask Friends, Family Members, or Colleagues to Participate?
→
179
authority relationships research recruitment Is It Ethical for Supervisors or Teachers to Recruit People Over Whom They Have Authority?
→
180
perceived coercion in research Can Someone Feel Coerced Even When the Researcher Never Explicitly Pressures Them?
→
181
power differences in research participation How Do Power Differences Affect Whether Participation Is Truly Voluntary?
→
182
gatekeeper pressure research participation Can Gatekeepers Create Pressure to Participate Even When Researchers Do Not?
→
183
mandatory research participation Can an Organization Require Employees or Students to Participate in Research?
→
184
participants believe research is mandatory What Should Researchers Do When Potential Participants Believe Participation Is Mandatory?
→
185
eligible but not selected for research study Can Researchers Tell Someone They Were Eligible but Not Selected for a Study?
→
186
research recruitment failing What Should You Do When Recruitment Is Failing but the Approved Recruitment Plan Cannot Simply Be Changed?
→

187
pay research participants Can Researchers Pay People to Participate in Research?
→
188
research participant payment Payment, Compensation, Reimbursement, and Incentives: What’s the Difference?
→
189
participant payment compensation What Is Participant Payment Actually Supposed to Compensate For?
→
190
how much to pay research participants How Much Participant Payment Is Too Much?
→
191
undue influence in research When Does an Incentive Become Undue Influence?
→
192
research payment coercion Does a Large Payment Automatically Make Participation Coercive?
→
193
research participant payment Should Participant Payments Reflect Time, Inconvenience, Risk, or All Three?
→
194
payment for research risk Should Participants Be Paid More for Riskier Research?
→
195
different participant payment amounts Is It Ethical to Pay Different Participants Different Amounts for the Same Study?
→
196
participant payment after withdrawal Should Participants Still Be Paid if They Withdraw Before Completing the Study?
→
197
prorated participant payment Can Payment Be Prorated Based on How Much of the Study a Participant Completes?
→
198
withhold research participant payment Can Researchers Withhold Payment From Participants Who Do Not Follow Study Instructions?
→
199
refuse payment careless survey responses Can Researchers Refuse Payment When Survey Responses Appear Careless or Unusable?
→
200
research prize draw incentive Can Prize Draws or Lotteries Be Used as Research Incentives?
→
201
course credit research participation Is Course Credit an Ethical Incentive for Student Participants?
→
202
alternative to research participation for course credit What Alternative Must Be Offered When Research Participation Is Rewarded With Course Credit?
→
203
noncash research incentives Can Gifts, Food, Transportation, or Other Noncash Benefits Create Undue Influence?
→
204
participant payment informed consent Should Participant Payment Be Mentioned Before or After the Risks of the Study Are Explained?
→

205
vulnerable research participants Research With Vulnerable Participants: What Extra Protections Are Needed?
→
206
vulnerability in research ethics What Does “Vulnerable” Actually Mean in Research Ethics?
→
207
situational vulnerability in research Is Vulnerability a Characteristic of a Person or a Situation?
→
208
vulnerable groups in research Does Belonging to a Vulnerable Group Automatically Make Someone Vulnerable in Every Study?
→
209
vulnerability and informed consent Does Vulnerability Automatically Mean Someone Cannot Give Informed Consent?
→
210
research design and participant vulnerability Can Researchers Create Vulnerability Through the Way a Study Is Designed?
→
211
financial need and undue influence in research Can Financial Need Make a Participant Vulnerable to Undue Influence?
→
212
dependency and research vulnerability Can Dependence on Healthcare, Employment, Education, or Services Create Research Vulnerability?
→
213
social stigma and research risk Can Social Stigma or Legal Status Make Participation Unusually Risky?
→
214
research with impaired decision-making capacity Can Researchers Include Participants With Impaired Decision-Making Capacity?
→
215
research with children ethics What Extra Protections Are Needed When Research Involves Children?
→
216
research with older adults ethics What Ethical Issues Arise When Research Involves Older Adults?
→
217
research with patients ethics What Ethical Issues Arise When Research Involves Patients or People Receiving Care?
→
218
research with prisoners ethics What Ethical Issues Arise When Research Involves Prisoners or Other Institutionalized Populations?
→
219
economically disadvantaged research participants What Ethical Issues Arise When Research Involves Economically Disadvantaged Participants?
→
220
research ethics with refugees and migrants What Ethical Issues Arise When Research Involves Refugees, Migrants, or People With Precarious Legal Status?
→
221
excluding vulnerable participants from research Can Excluding Vulnerable Participants From Research Also Be Unethical?
→
222
unfair exclusion from research When Does Protecting a Population Become Unfairly Excluding Them From Research?
→

223
justice in research participant selection What Does Justice Mean in Research Participant Selection?
→
224
research burdens and benefits Who Should Bear the Burdens of Research, and Who Should Receive Its Benefits?
→
225
recruiting easy-to-access participants ethics Is It Ethical to Recruit Participants Mainly Because They Are Easy to Access?
→
226
convenience sampling ethical problems Can Convenience Sampling Create an Ethical Problem as Well as a Methodological One?
→
227
research in disadvantaged communities ethics Is It Ethical to Conduct Research in a Disadvantaged Community When the Results Are Mainly Intended to Benefit Someone Else?
→
228
exploitation in research ethics What Is Exploitation in Research, and How Can It Occur Without Obvious Harm?
→
229
extractive community research When Does Research With a Community Become Extractive?
→
230
community benefits from research Should Communities That Provide Research Participants Receive Something in Return?
→
231
participant access to research results and interventions Does Fair Research Require Participants to Have Access to the Intervention or Knowledge Produced by the Study?
→
232
post-trial access What Is Post-Trial Access, and When Do Researchers Owe Participants Continued Access to an Intervention?
→
233
excluding pregnant people from research Is It Ethical to Exclude Pregnant People From Research Simply to Avoid Additional Risk?
→
234
research exclusion for convenience Is It Ethical to Exclude Older Adults, Disabled People, or Non-English Speakers for Convenience?
→
235
ethical research exclusion criteria When Are Exclusion Criteria Ethically Justified Rather Than Merely Convenient?
→
236
systematic exclusion from research samples Can a Study Be Unethical Because Its Sample Systematically Excludes the People Most Affected by the Research Question?
→
237
researcher obligations after data collection What Do Researchers Owe Communities After Data Collection Is Finished?
→

238
research risk What Counts as Research Risk, and How Do You Know Whether It Is Acceptable?
→
239
types of research risk Physical, Psychological, Social, Legal, Economic, and Reputational Risks: What Should Researchers Consider?
→
240
research risk vs burden Risk vs. Burden vs. Inconvenience: What’s the Difference?
→
241
minimal risk research What Does “Minimal Risk” Actually Mean?
→
242
minimal risk baseline Minimal Compared With What? How Is the Baseline for Research Risk Determined?
→
243
research risk-benefit assessment How Do You Conduct a Risk-Benefit Assessment for Research?
→
244
eliminating research risk Does Every Research Risk Need to Be Eliminated?
→
245
acceptable research risk How Much Risk Is Acceptable When the Research Could Produce Important Knowledge?
→
246
direct benefit research participants Does a Study Need to Benefit the Participants Directly?
→
247
research without personal benefit Can Research Be Ethical When Participants Receive No Personal Benefit?
→
248
societal benefits research risk Can Potential Benefits to Society Justify Substantial Risks to Individual Participants?
→
249
compensation research risk Can Compensation Make an Otherwise Unacceptable Risk Ethical?
→
250
unlikely serious research harms How Should Researchers Think About Very Unlikely but Very Serious Harms?
→
251
cumulative research burden How Should Researchers Evaluate Cumulative Burden When Each Individual Procedure Seems Minor?
→
252
new research risk during study What Should You Do When a Risk Becomes Apparent Only After the Study Has Started?
→
253
new information risk-benefit balance When Does New Information Change the Original Risk-Benefit Balance?
→
254
pause research study safety When Should Researchers Pause a Study Because the Risk-Benefit Balance Has Changed?
→
255
stop research study participant harm When Should Researchers Stop a Study Because Participants May Be Harmed?
→

256
adverse event in research What Is an Adverse Event in Research?
→
257
serious adverse event What Is a Serious Adverse Event in Research, and How Is It Different From an Adverse Event?
→
258
adverse event causality reporting Does an Adverse Event Have to Be Caused by the Research to Be Reportable?
→
259
unanticipated problem in research What Is an Unanticipated Problem, and How Is It Different From an Adverse Event?
→
260
adverse event reporting requirements When Does an Adverse Event in Research Need to Be Reported?
→
261
adverse event relatedness assessment Who Decides Whether an Adverse Event Is Related to the Research?
→
262
participant distress in research What Should Researchers Do When Participation Causes Unexpected Distress?
→
263
when to stop research interview participant distress When Should a Research Interview or Survey Be Stopped Because a Participant Is Distressed?
→
264
research interview participant visible distress Should a Research Interview Continue if the Participant Wants to Proceed Despite Visible Distress?
→
265
participant support for sensitive research What Support Should Researchers Have Ready Before Asking Participants About Traumatic or Sensitive Experiences?
→
266
participant illness or injury during research What Should You Do if a Participant Becomes Ill or Injured During Research?
→
267
responsibility for research-related injury Who Is Responsible When a Participant Experiences Research-Related Injury or Harm?
→
268
research injury compensation and treatment Should Participants Be Told Whether Compensation or Treatment Is Available for Research-Related Harm?
→
269
participant safety study changes When Does a Participant-Safety Problem Require Changes to the Entire Study?
→
270
serious participant safety incident research What Should Researchers Do After a Serious Participant-Safety Incident?
→

271
privacy confidentiality anonymity data protection research Privacy, Confidentiality, Anonymity, and Data Protection: What’s the Difference?
→
272
anonymous vs confidential research Anonymous vs. Confidential Research: Why Aren’t They the Same Thing?
→
273
can research data be truly anonymous Can Research Data Ever Be Truly Anonymous?
→
274
de-identification vs anonymization vs pseudonymization De-Identification vs. Anonymization vs. Pseudonymization: What’s the Difference?
→
275
identifiable research information What Counts as Identifiable Research Information?
→
276
identification without names research data Can Someone Be Identified Without Their Name Appearing in the Dataset?
→
277
direct and indirect identifiers research data What Are Direct and Indirect Identifiers in Research Data?
→
278
re-identification risk research data What Is Re-Identification Risk, and Why Does It Increase When Datasets Are Combined?
→
279
research data anonymous identifiable others Can Research Data Be Anonymous to the Researcher but Identifiable to Someone Else?
→
280
collecting identifying information participants How Much Identifying Information Should Researchers Collect From Participants?
→
281
participant contact information research data Should Participant Contact Information Be Stored With Research Responses?
→
282
access identifiable research information Who Should Have Access to Identifiable Research Information?
→
283
separate identifiers research data When Should Participant Identifiers Be Separated From Research Data?
→
284
remove participant identifiers research data When Should Participant Identifiers Be Permanently Removed From Research Data?
→
285
complete confidentiality research Can Researchers Promise Participants Complete Confidentiality?
→
286
breaking participant confidentiality research When Can Researchers Break Participant Confidentiality?
→
287
limits of confidentiality research participants What Should Researchers Tell Participants About the Limits of Confidentiality?
→
288
confidentiality researchers know participants Can Researchers Protect Confidentiality When They Know Participants Personally?
→
289
small sample participant identification Can a Small Research Sample Make Participants Identifiable Even When Names Are Removed?
→
290
demographic details participant identification When Can Demographic Details Accidentally Identify a Research Participant?
→

291
identifiable research materials How Should Researchers Handle Audio, Video, Photographs, and Other Identifiable Research Materials?
→
292
identifiable audio recording research Is an Audio Recording Identifiable Even When the Participant Never Says Their Name?
→
293
identifiable research data Can Voice, Face, Location, or Other Characteristics Make Research Data Identifiable?
→
294
retain research recordings after transcription Should Identifiable Recordings Be Kept After Transcription Is Complete?
→
295
participant photographs research Can Researchers Use Participant Photographs in Publications or Presentations?
→
296
consent to show research recordings Does Consent to Be Recorded Include Consent for the Recording to Be Shown to Others?
→
297
quote research participants anonymously Can You Quote a Participant Without Revealing Who They Are?
→
298
anonymous quote identify participant Can an “Anonymous” Quote Still Identify a Participant?
→
299
alter qualitative quotes protect identity Should Researchers Alter Details in Qualitative Quotes to Protect Identity?
→
300
anonymising qualitative data What Should You Do When Removing Identifying Details Changes the Meaning of Qualitative Data?
→
301
combined details identify research participants Can Several Harmless Details Become Identifying When They Appear Together?
→
302
confidentiality when participants know each other How Do You Protect Confidentiality When Participants Know Each Other?
→
303
focus group confidentiality Can Researchers Guarantee Confidentiality in a Focus Group?
→
304
focus group confidentiality limits What Should Participants in a Focus Group Be Told About the Limits of Confidentiality?
→
305
participant breaches research confidentiality What Should You Do When Another Participant, Rather Than the Researcher, Reveals Confidential Research Information?
→

306
research ethics vs data protection Research Ethics vs. Data Protection Compliance: What’s the Difference?
→
307
personal data collection in research What Personal Data Do Researchers Actually Need to Collect?
→
308
data minimization in research What Is Data Minimization, and Why Does It Matter in Research?
→
309
research consent vs data processing consent Consent to Participate vs. Permission to Process Personal Data: Are They the Same Thing?
→
310
responsibility for protecting research data Who Is Responsible for Protecting Personal Research Data?
→
311
data controller custodian steward research Who Is the Data Controller, Data Custodian, or Data Steward in a Research Project?
→
312
research data cloud storage Can Research Data Be Stored in Commercial Cloud Services?
→
313
participant data on personal devices Can Researchers Store Participant Data on Personal Computers or Devices?
→
314
research data USB drives Can Research Data Be Stored on USB Drives or Portable Media?
→
315
sending research data by email Can Research Data Be Sent by Email?
→
316
personal email accounts research data Can Researchers Use Personal Email Accounts for Research Data?
→
317
research data transfer between institutions What Should You Consider Before Transferring Research Data Between Institutions?
→
318
international research data transfer What Should You Consider Before Transferring Research Data Across Countries?
→
319
collaborator access participant data Can a Collaborator Receive Participant Data Simply Because They Are a Member of the Research Team?
→
320
research data sharing agreement When Is a Data-Sharing or Data-Transfer Agreement Needed?
→
321
research data accidentally disclosed or lost What Happens When Research Data Are Accidentally Disclosed or Lost?
→
322
research data breach What Is a Research Data Breach, and What Should You Do When One Happens?
→
323
reporting research data breach Who Must Be Told When a Research Data Breach Occurs?
→
324
data breach pause research study Can a Data Breach Become Serious Enough to Require Pausing the Study?
→

325
deception in research ethics Can Researchers Deceive Participants? When Is Deception in Research Ethical?
→
326
deception vs incomplete disclosure Deception vs. Incomplete Disclosure: What’s the Difference?
→
327
withholding study purpose deception Is Withholding the Full Purpose of a Study Always Deception?
→
328
withholding full study purpose When Is It Justifiable Not to Tell Participants the Full Purpose of a Study?
→
329
withholding information participant behavior Can Researchers Withhold Information Simply Because Knowing It Might Change Participant Behavior?
→
330
scientific necessity research deception What Makes Deception Scientifically Necessary Rather Than Merely Convenient?
→
331
deception vs nondeceptive research Can Deception Be Ethical When a Nondeceptive Study Could Answer the Same Question?
→
332
placebos research deception Are Placebos a Form of Deception?
→
333
false feedback research participants Can Researchers Give Participants False Feedback About Their Performance or Behavior?
→
334
risk deceptive research How Much Risk Can a Deceptive Study Ethically Involve?
→
335
research debriefing requirements What Is Debriefing After Deception or Incomplete Disclosure, and When Is It Required?
→
336
what should a research debrief explain What Should a Good Research Debrief Actually Explain?
→
337
research debriefing timing How Soon After Participation Should Debriefing Occur?
→
338
delayed research debriefing Can Debriefing Be Delayed Until the Entire Study Is Finished?
→
339
withdraw data after research deception Can Participants Withdraw Their Data After Learning They Were Deceived?
→
340
debriefing harm research deception What Happens When Debriefing Could Cause More Harm Than the Original Deception?
→
341
research without debriefing Can Researchers Ever Decide Not to Debrief Participants?
→
342
covert observation research deception Is Covert Observation a Form of Deception?
→

343
observation without consent in research Can Researchers Observe People Without Their Consent?
→
344
public vs private behavior in research Public vs. Private Behavior: Where Is the Ethical Boundary for Observation?
→
345
research in public places without consent Does Being in a Public Place Mean Someone Can Be Studied Without Consent?
→
346
recording people in public for research Can Researchers Record People in Public Without Telling Them?
→
347
observing children and vulnerable people in research Does the Ethical Boundary Change When Observation Involves Children or Vulnerable People?
→
348
covert observation research ethics When Is Covert Observation Ethically Defensible?
→
349
online data research without consent Can Researchers Use Websites, Forums, and Social Media Posts Without Consent?
→
350
public social media research data Does a Public Social Media Post Automatically Count as Public Research Data?
→
351
publicly accessible vs ethically public data Publicly Accessible vs. Ethically Public: Why Aren’t They Always the Same Thing?
→
352
internet users research participants Are Internet Users Human Research Participants or Data Sources?
→
353
permission to quote social media posts in research Do Researchers Need Permission to Quote Social Media Posts?
→
354
online quotes author identification Can Quoting an Online Post Make the Author Identifiable Even Without Naming Them?
→
355
paraphrase online posts to reduce searchability Should Researchers Paraphrase Online Posts to Reduce Searchability?
→
356
online community research ethics What Ethical Issues Arise When Research Involves Online Communities?
→
357
researcher identification online observation Should Researchers Identify Themselves When Observing Online Groups?
→
358
private online community research data What Should Researchers Consider Before Using Data From Closed or Private Online Communities?
→
359
private online group research permission Does Joining a Private Online Group Give a Researcher Permission to Study It?
→
360
deleted online content research How Should Researchers Handle Deleted Posts or Content That Was Public When It Was Collected?
→
361
web scraping research ethics Does Web Scraping Create Ethical Responsibilities Even When the Data Are Public and Scraping Is Technically Possible?
→
362
large-scale data collection research ethics Can Large-Scale Data Collection Become Ethically Problematic Even When No Individual Data Item Is Sensitive?
→

363
secondary data research consent Does Secondary Data Research Need New Consent?
→
364
reuse research data for different research question Can Data Collected for One Study Be Used to Answer a Different Research Question?
→
365
secondary research original consent purpose How Far Can Secondary Research Move From the Purpose Participants Originally Consented To?
→
366
broad consent in research What Is Broad Consent, and How Broad Can Consent Really Be?
→
367
consent to future research uses Can Participants Meaningfully Consent to Research Uses That Have Not Yet Been Imagined?
→
368
archived research data ethics What Ethical Responsibilities Come With Using Archived Research Data?
→
369
original consent does not cover new study What Should You Do When the Original Consent Does Not Clearly Cover Your New Study?
→
370
de-identification secondary data ethics Does De-Identification Automatically Make Secondary Use Ethically Acceptable?
→
371
data linkage without participant consent Can Researchers Link Different Datasets Without Recontacting Participants?
→
372
data linkage privacy risks Does Data Linkage Create New Privacy Risks Even When Each Dataset Was Safe on Its Own?
→
373
identifiable data linkage access Who Should Be Allowed to Perform Linkage Using Identifiable Data?
→
374
research records without consent Can Researchers Use Administrative, Clinical, Educational, or Government Records Without Individual Consent?
→
375
secondary use of biological samples ethics What Ethical Issues Arise When Using Biological Samples Collected for Another Purpose?
→
376
stored biological samples future research Can Stored Biological Samples Be Used for Research the Donor Never Anticipated?
→
377
who owns stored biological samples Who Owns Stored Biological Samples and the Information Derived From Them?
→
378
withdraw biological samples after analysis Can Participants Withdraw Biological Samples After Analyses Have Already Been Performed?
→
379
withdrawal from biobank What Happens When a Participant Withdraws From a Biobank or Long-Term Data Repository?
→
380
indefinite storage of research data and biological samples Can Research Data or Biological Samples Be Kept Indefinitely for Future Research?
→

381
incidental findings in research What Is an Incidental Finding, and When Does a Researcher Have a Responsibility to Act?
→
382
incidental vs secondary findings Incidental vs. Secondary Findings: What’s the Difference?
→
383
should researchers search for secondary findings Should Researchers Actively Look for Findings That Are Outside the Research Question?
→
384
disclosing unexpected findings to research participants Should Researchers Tell Participants About Unexpected Findings?
→
385
when to return incidental findings What Makes an Incidental Finding Important Enough to Return to a Participant?
→
386
clinically actionable incidental findings Does an Incidental Finding Need to Be Clinically Actionable Before It Should Be Returned?
→
387
uncertain incidental findings What if an Incidental Finding Is Potentially Important but Highly Uncertain?
→
388
research findings affecting participant health or safety What if a Research Finding Might Affect a Participant’s Health or Safety?
→
389
participant choice incidental findings Should Participants Be Allowed to Choose Whether They Want to Receive Incidental Findings?
→
390
right not to know research findings Can Participants Choose Not to Know Potentially Important Information Discovered During Research?
→
391
who should communicate incidental findings Who Should Explain an Incidental Finding to the Participant?
→
392
who pays for confirmatory testing incidental findings Who Pays for Confirmatory Testing or Follow-Up After an Incidental Finding?
→
393
participant discloses abuse research What Should Researchers Do When a Participant Discloses Possible Abuse?
→
394
participant discloses suicide risk research What Should Researchers Do When a Participant Discloses Self-Harm or Suicide Risk?
→
395
research participant risk of harm to others What Should Researchers Do When a Participant Appears to Pose a Serious Risk to Someone Else?
→
396
researchers discover illegal activity What Should Researchers Do When They Discover Possible Illegal Activity?
→
397
research confidentiality duty to report When Does Confidentiality Give Way to a Duty to Act or Report?
→
398
plan for incidental findings before data collection Should Researchers Plan for Incidental Findings and Unexpected Disclosures Before Data Collection Begins?
→
When You're Ready to Move On

Once the study is approved, the evidence has to be collected carefully.

The next stage focuses on gathering, organizing, documenting, and protecting the data your study depends on.

Next · Part 06

Collecting Data You Can Actually Use

Plan systematic research data collection, develop appropriate instruments, manage and protect your data, and document how information was collected so it remains accurate, interpretable, organized, and ready for analysis.

Continue to Part 06 →